ÿWPC ª*B1PD5jC[2J£¦NwŒSŠº‹.hâ&ÝýÄÆÒaÁàpêW¹ly^Rì|_pËÏP; ¶@zßÙ`ƒW¦†jÙù}‘—sqôYó5á¾ì»éÞ%DyßÒîà •ðÝ|l|ºÁ“(ÀÖ5ÏôC5¢-,RÓkw†Íüôg˜8)¬ Gý=ã~øETº 9ýÕH‡|Ó˜U+K«ÀªÖÿ¸÷à·xQÉøõ(°µ uò á»ûÃWqü7º³–¶Z§²0èœoþ¾Cdž‡õv@ÚÉ+¶Ãs¨ïþ¾cZO×—:è7-9‹aù1ü-s~áûD7«Q0ÝÆ+àÇ´æÈòÏS¨E)³‘ò"äZ¶VæÎëdÑEå£7ô³pKž¦Ä!«qgg!{É}»¢‘½"!‡Tkʶë»s¶z™œ0¡;©C<Ú ¯BÖòé4Cöä!Rán¡C‡"&Ö£ß*î0Þ6½ózè ŽEÎß•³ê$þq' à<ÖÅ׽Ȗè~f  å?œ?Jm¬3\·ø†ú Ø„j6ðÕNؘðõ¿"]ª”Ù®Ò³ÄÒÜbÓdÝaÅu§²Ò~s¾GQ¥p`ËÝ# ~Ó"Ú8óâ'õxJ«–t4ã{´‡ #!¨UNÉ % 0(w@E4…™¨ mª-Á*î˜Canon Bubble-Jet BJC-4200–XÙÙ–X0(  Z‹6Times New Roman RegularX($¡¡ UEVWXEYZ[E\E]^²°“&ê:i¢Ø+003|x^ÿU‹ÿÀÀÀ #Ñ#€ä€Xÿÿd#Ñ LobelRatnerÝ ƒ!ÝÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÑ€ ücÑJennifer€YoungÌJournal€Article€Analysis€IIÌApril€22,€1999ÌÓÓÌ€€€€€Lobel,€Jules,€and€Michael€Ratner.€€ð ðBypassing€the€Security€Council:€AmbiguousÏAuthorizations€to€Use€Force,€Cease„Fires€and€the€Iraqi€Inspection€Regime.ðð€€òòThe€AmericanÐ + { ÐJournal€of€International€Law,€óó1999,òò€óóVol,€93:24:€124„154.Ð  U  ÐÌ€€€€€Jules€Lobel€is€a€Professor€of€Law€at€the€University€of€Pittsburgh€Law€School.€€Michael€RatnerÏis€an€Attorney€at€the€Center€for€Constitutional€Rights.€ÌÌ€€€€€United€States€officials€in€January€and€February€of€1998,€including€President€Clinton,€citedÏUnited€Nations€Security€Council€resolutions€which,€in€their€eyes,€gave€the€U.S.€authority€toÏattack€Iraq€for€non„compliance€with€unconditional€weapons€inspections.€€Other€permanentÏmembers€of€the€Security€Council€disagreed€(Lobel€and€Ratner,€1999).€€Secretary€General„€ñOñKofiñOññOñÔ_ÔKofiÔ_ÔñOñÏÔ_ÔAnnanÔ_Ô€went€to€Bagdad€and€signed€a€memorandum€of€understanding€regarding€inspections€withÏthe€Iraqi€Deputy€Prime€Minister€(Lobel€and€Ratner,€1999).€€Resolution€1154€was€unanimouslyÏsupported€by€the€Security€Council€on€March€2,€1998€endorsing€the€memorandum€ofÏunderstanding,€but€U.S.€Ambassador€Bill€Richardson€said€the€U.N.€vote€was€a€ð ðgreen€lightðð€toÏattack€Iraq€if€they€did€not€comply€with€the€inspections€(Lobel€and€Ratner,€1999).€€Furthermore,€ÏU.S.€and€British€officials€argued€that€Resolution€678€of€1990,€continued€to€give€them€authorityÏto€punish€Iraq€for€cease„fire€violations€(Lobel€and€Ratner,€1999).€€The€authors€note€that€ð ðfew€ofÏthe€Council€members€could€have€contemplated€that€the€resolution€would€authorize€the€bombingÏof€Iraq€to€secure€compliance€€with€an€inspection€regimeðð(Lobel€and€Ratner,€1999).€€How€doÐ ,Ï'+ Ðaggressive€states€continue€to€bypass€the€UN€Charter?€€The€absence€of€thoroughly€explicitÏindications€in€the€language€of€the€resolutions,€and€the€inability€to€anticipate€the€creativity€andÏmotives€of€the€actors€involved,€€invites€manipulation€by€aggressive€states€of€Council€resolutions.€€Ï€Lobel€and€Ratner,€in€this€article,€call€attention€to€the€often€ambiguous,€broad€language€inÏSecurity€Council€Resolutions€that€can€provide€justification€for€aggressive€states€to€undermine€theÏCouncilððs€authority.€€During€€the€1998€Iraqi€weapons€inspection€crisis,€the€U.S.€and€BritishÏinterpretations€of€ambiguities,€gave€justification€for€aggression€that€was€clearly€against€the€aimsÏand€objectives€of€the€Security€Council€as€a€whole.€€The€authorððs€question€ð ð(1)€whether€theÏSecurity€Council€has€authorized€the€use€of€force;€(2)€how€the€scope€and€extent€of€anÏauthorization€are€determined;€and€(3)€whether€the€authorization€has€terminatedðð€(Lobel€andÏRatner,€1999).€€Ì€€€€€The€United€Nations€Charter€indicates€that€peaceful€means€of€conflict€resolution€are€to€beÏsought,€and€force€is€to€be€used€in€the€interest€of€the€international€community€and€not€individual€Ïstates.€€To€achieve€these€goals,€the€Security€Council€must€retain€ð ðstrict€control€over€theÏinitiation,€duration,€and€objectives€of€the€use€of€force€in€international€relationsðð€(Lobel€andÏRatner,€1999).€€The€loop„holes€provided€in€ambiguous€language€of€Security€Council€resolutions,Ïundermine€this€control,€and€effectively€leave€the€Council€impotent.€€The€authors€call€for€threeÏrules€that€should€be€exercised€to€help€prevent€misinterpretations€of€Council€resolutions„€ð ð(1)Ïexplicit€and€not€implicit€Security€Council€authorization€is€necessary€before€a€nation€may€useÏforce€that€does€not€derive€from€the€right€to€self„defense€under€Article€51;€(2)€authorizationsÏshould€clearly€articulate€and€limit€the€objectives€for€which€force€may€be€employed,€andÏambiguous€authorizations€should€be€narrowly€construed;€and€(3)€the€authorization€to€use€forceÏshould€cease€with€the€establishment€of€a€permanent€cease„fire€unless€explicitly€extended€to€byÐ l-¼(, Ðthe€Security€Council.ððÌ€€€€€In€the€article,€the€authors€cite€several€examples€of€international€incidents€where€implicitÏauthorization€has€been€used€to€justify€intervention.€€For€example,€in€1961,€India€took€Goa€fromÏPortugal€claiming€UN€resolutions€against€colonialism€were€being€exercised.€€Many€of€theÏCouncil€members€objected,€but€newly€freed€states€in€Africa,€and€ñRñthe€ñRñgovernment€of€the€SovietÏUnion€supported€India€because€they€saw€colonization€intolerable.€€The€authors€point€out€thatÏð ðsuch€an€implied€authorization€loosens€the€restraints€on€the€use€of€force;€it€encourages€states€toÏuse€force€when€they€believe€their€actions€will€be€tolerated€for€political€reasons€by€a€majority€ofÏstatesðð€(Lobel€and€Ratner,€1999).€€Another€example,€in€1962,€€US€officials€implied€that€it€wasÏauthorized€to€interdict€Soviet€ships€en€route€to€Cuba,€on€the€basis€that€the€UN€Security€CouncilÏhad€not€voted€on€a€resolution€supporting€the€action.€€So,€inaction€on€the€part€of€the€Council€wasÏused€to€justify€US€action!€(Lobel€and€RatnerñSñ.€ñSññTñ,€ñTñ1999).€€€It€is€admitted€that€implicit€authorizationÏexists,€and€consequently€ñUñð ðñUñreflectñVñsñVñ€ñXññWñððñWññXññYñð ðñYñthe€eliteððs€willingness€to€tolerate€certain€forceful€action€byÏindividual€states,€even€if€such€behavior€conflicts€with€the€formal€rules€of€embodied€in€the€UNÏCharterðð€(Lobel€and€Ratner,€1999).€€The€1991€provisions€by€the€US,€UK,€and€France€to€provideÏsafe€havens€for€Kurds,€and€no„fly€zones€in€Iraq,€were€met€by€acquiescence€by€the€Council,Ïthough€some€objections€were€made€concerning€the€lack€of€explicit€Council€endorsement€(LobelÏand€Ratner,€1999).€€The€authors€plead€for€explicit€Security€resolutions€so€that€ð ðambiguity,Ïacquiescence,€approving€statements,€or€even€silenceðð€will€not€suffice€ð ðto€provide€authorizationÏfor€the€use€of€forceðð€(Lobel€and€Ratner,€1999).€€€€Although€claims€of€implicit€authorization€haveÏbeen€strongly€contested,€if€the€United€Nations€Security€Council€will€not€be€explicit,€and€cannotÏenforce€compliance€to€its€resolutions€and€the€UN€Charter,€then€respect€for€this€institution€willÏcontinue€to€erode.Ð l-¼(, ÐÑ ücÑâ  âÑ8€dBXXdíXXdí8Ñâ  âÑ  Ñ€€€€€The€strongest€example€the€article€provided€of€how€broad€language€can€be€interpreted€toÐ ° Ðjustify€escalation€and€sustain€conflictñZñ,ñZñ€concerns€both€the€Korean€War€and€the€Gulf€War.€€In€eachÏcase€the€phraseology€ð ðrestore€international€peace€and€security€in€the€areaðð€was€interpreted€andÏused€as€a€justification€for€continued€aggression.€€This€broad€authorizing€language€providedÏPresident€Truman,€and€the€US€ambassador€to€the€United€Nations€justification€for€the€US€militaryÏto€pursue€the€retreating€North€Koreans.€Peace€and€security€would€only€be€achieved€if€€NorthÏKorean€military€capability€was€degraded€so€that€the€possibility€of€future€attacks€by€theÏCommunists€were€eliminated.€€This€same€phrase„ð ðrestore€international€peace€and€security€in€theÏareaðð„€is€present€in€Resolution€678€concerning€Iraq,€and€is€being€used€to€justify€the€economicÏsanctions€and€continued€bombardment€of€this€rouge€state.Ì€€€€€The€air€strikes€against€Ô_ÔKosovoÔ_Ô/añ[ñ/añ[ñ€present€similar€questions€concerning€the€ambiguous,€if€notÏflagrant€disregard,€for€the€UN€Security€Councilððs€role€in€maintaining€international€stability.€€TheÏUS€has€used€humanitarian€objectives€as€a€justification€ñ\ñofñ\ññ]ñforñ]ñ€the€air€strikes,€but€the€authors€warnÏthat€ð ðThe€history€of€humanitarian€intervention€is€replete€with€invocations€of€humanitarian€goalsÏby€strong€powers€or€multilateral€coalitions€to€justify€their€geopolitical€interestsðð€(Lobel€andÏRatner,€1999).€€The€article€concedes€that€ð ðsituations€will€arise€in€which€most€UN€members€willÏwant€the€United€States€or€some€other€state€to€be€able€to€use€forceñ^ñ,ñ^ñ€and€China€or€some€other€stateððÏmay€be€opposed,€but€the€case€will€need€to€be€made€that€military€action€is€in€the€internationalÏcommunities€interest,€rather€than€the€geopolitical€interests€of€individual€states,€and€is€beingÏð ðused€as€a€last€resort€determined€by€a€world€body.ðð(Lobel€and€Ratner,€1999).€€Ì€€€€€The€United€States€with€regard€to€the€recent€air„strikes€on€Iraq€and€Yugoslavia,€is€clearly€inÏviolation€of€the€UN€charter,€and€is€demonstrating€a€blatant€refusal€to€accept€limits€on€its€power.€Ð ’+â&* ÐThe€postscript€in€the€article,€without€the€knowledge€of€the€United€States€most€recentÏtransgression€in€Kosovo/a,€predicts€ð ðthe€Security€Council€will€be€reluctant€to€authorize€andÏcontract€out€force€it€cannot€control;€powerful€nations€will€act€on€their€ownðð€(Lobel€and€Ratner,Ï1999).€€The€mainland€of€the€United€States€was€left€untouched€by€the€bombs€of€the€world€wars,Ïand€perhaps€our€government€suffers€from€overconfidence.€€€Disregard€for€recognizedÏinternational€procedures€regarding€the€use€of€force,€undermines€the€very€democracy€the€UnitedÏStates€has€always€claimed€to€be€fighting€for.€The€United€Nations€provides€a€forum€for€theÏrecognition€of€every€countryððs€sovereignty€and€allows€for€international€democracy.€€€The€UnitedÏNations€is€the€best€hope€humanity€has€today€for€the€maintenance€of€peace€in€the€world.€€€If€theÏUnited€States€and€other€powerful€nations€bypass€the€Security€Council€and€take€on€their€demonsÏin€cowboy€fashion,€then€there€is€little€hope€for€peace.€€Peace€requires€honesty,€respect,€and€aboveÏall€patience.€€€Ì€€€€€Ì€€€€€ÌÌÌÓvÓ